High Risk Pregnancy - The Battered Woman - 1085 Words

High Risk Pregnancy – The Battered Woman Erin Mosness MSU Billings City College Abstract In this paper it will discuss domestic violence during pregnancy. The signs and symptoms of a battered woman and the impact of domestic violence on the pregnant woman and her family will be deciphered. Medical intervention will be discussed, patient teaching will be described and there will be three pertinent nursing diagnosis’s with rationale. Pregnancy is a natural and beautiful process. It is something most women look forward to and in the most part it is a happy time for the mother, father, relatives and friends. An optimal pregnancy is one with minimal complication, but pregnancy, in itself, comes with its own set of complications. There are a lot of different diseases and conditions that can occur during pregnancy. Most of these complications can be fixed with medicine and close monitoring by the medical team. There is a high risk pregnancy that cannot be fixed by medicine, it is domestic violence. Domestic abuse/violence is abusive behavior in a relationship. The abusive behavior is used to possess power and control over the other individual. There are many forms of abuse. Physical abuse is a dangerous form of abuse for the pregnant woman. Domestic violence is a hidden epidemic that lurks behind closed doors and is rarely talked about or discussed openly. Domestic violence and pregnancy combine for a high risk pregnancy. As a healthcare providerShow MoreRelatedThe Domestic Violence Act 1995 Essay1499 Words   |  6 PagesIn New Zealand, 1 in 4 woman will experience a form of intimate partner violence (IPV) throughout the course of their relationships (New Zealand Family Violence Clearhouse, 2015). The Domestic Violence Act 1995 (2014) defines violence in this instance as physical , sexual and psychological abuse. This abuse has a myriad of health consequences on all members of the whÄ nau, including children who witness or are subjected to this violence. The primary health care (PHC) nurse has a range of responsibilitiesRead MoreCan Single-Parent Households Influence Adolescents To Become Abusers?1099 Words   |  5 PagesCensus, 2013). Common belief would lead people to believe that most children live with one parent as a result of divorce, but generally single parents were most likely never married at all due to the consequence of accidental, unplanned and teenage pregnancies, as well as adult women who put off marriage to get ahead in their career and education (Dornbusch et. Al., 1985). One basic cause of single-parent households are divorce. Divorce can be caused by many factors, including adultery/infidelity, midlifeRead MoreGender Inequality During Latin American Countries1373 Words   |  6 Pagesher life is at risk. 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With saying that mental illness could cause dissociation which occurs during extreme stress among prisoners of war who are tortured, among children who are sexually assaulted, and among women who are battered, raped, or prostituted also dissociation, depression, and other mood disorders are common among prostituted women in street, escort, and strip club prostitution according to Melissa Farley, PhD, Founding Director of the Prostitution Research andRead MoreChild Abuse and Violence Against Families1204 Words   |  5 Pagesleast likely to have reported the assault, while women who were assaulted by a stranger were more likely to report to police. 18% had never told anyone about the incident. Now we come to the question, why would a woman whose face is disfigured, whose bones are broken, whose pregnancy is lost, remain with a spouse who might beat her to death? For some, there is no exit. It is like the door is open but she cannot leave. 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Design and Manufacturing Plan of a Jominy Testing Device

JOMINY TEST Design Manufacturing Plan of a Jominy Testing Device Bachelor s thesis Mechanical Engineering Production technology Riihimà ¤ki 2012 James Alison Orivri ABSTRACT Unit Name of degree programme Option Author Jominy Test James Alison Orivri Year 2012 Design Manufacturing Plan of a Jominy Testing Device ABSTRACT The purpose of this work is to make one of the many heat treatments devices- Jominy end quenching testing machine of manufacturing processes. In the process, cases and related topics are going to be considered; necessary information to give the reader in-depth knowledge and understanding into the issue will be elaborated. The idea of this project is to design a Jominy end quench testing machine†¦show more content†¦7 Hardenability In Jominy Test .............................................................................. 8 Advantages disadvantages of Jominy Test ................................................... 10 Testing Procedure .............................................................................................. 10 Uses of hardenability values ............................................................................. 13 Effects of alloying and microstructure .............................................................. 13 2.8.1 Carbon ......... .......................................................................................... 14 2.8.2 Other alloying elements ......................................................................... 15 2.8.3 Boron ..................................................................................................... 15 2.9 Grain size........................................................................................................... 15 2.10 How to produce the result ................................................................................. 16 2.10.1 Contourplots .......................................................................................... 16 3 DESIGN PLAN OF JOMINY TESTING MACHINE ............................................. 18 3.1 Basic concept of the design ............................................................................... 18 3.1.1 Design standardization

Criminal Law Automatism

Question: Discuss about the Criminal Law Automatism. Answer: Introduction Automatism is a type of defense which is used in the criminal law cases. Automatism is one of the types of medical conditions, which is related to the mental state of the defending party. It can be seen as lack of excuse, or culpability, or the lack of voluntariness. This denotes that the defending party was not aware about their actions while doing or making the particular move, which resulted in the constitution of an illegal act[1]. In a number of jurisdictions, there is a distinction between the sane and the insane automatism. As per the MNaghten Rules, in case of the involuntariness being caused by a disease of mind, i.e., mental illness, it has to be treated as an insane automatism and in these situations, it results in the verdict being a special one, i.e., of not being guilty as a result of insanity. For the defendant, this has major practical implications since they can still be held in the custody, even after the special verdict has been delivered, as opposed to the cases where straight acquittal is available through sane automatism[2]. Since automatism is a comprehensive defense, there are a number of exclusions to this very defense. In this, the person should not be at the fault. A classic example of this can be seen in the case of Kay v Butterworth[3], where the individual was not held criminal liable for being unconscious while driving, as a result of a sudden illness. Though, an individual could be held responsible for driving in a state where ne could fall asleep while driving. The issue relating to the prior fault applies in cases of the diabetics suffering from hypoglycemia while driving[4]. The following parts present a contrast between insane and sane automatism as this issue been subject to sustained and cogent criticism[5]. Types of Automatism As highlighted earlier, there are two types of automatism, the sane and the insane one. Automatism is often referred as the non insane automatism, which helps in making a difference between it and the defense of insanity. The automotive state cause has to be external and so a reference to this is made in terms of external factor theory. It is crucial that these two are distinguished. In case the cause of automatic action was something external, for instance, a concussion resulting from a blow to the head, then upon applying the defense of automatism, the same can be used to lead to a verdict which states not-guilty. Though, in case the automatic behavior is from a cause of internal factors, for instance epilepsy, then it is the case of insane automatism and is covered under the insanity defense and not under automatism[6]. There are two kinds of seizures for a diabetic patient which can lead to an individual being unconscious. Hypoglycemia is the low blood sugar diabetes and is caused by taking insulin and not eating afterwards, or in case where too much insulin has been taken. Hyperglycemia is the opposite of it, and so, it is the high blood sugar and is caused by failure in taking enough or any insulin. In both the cases, it is possible that before the loss of consciousness, the diabetic individual might become hysterically violent or aggressive[7]. A diabetic who is aggressive or violent as a result of being in a hypoglycemic state would likely be able to plead automatism as a result of the insulin, since the intake of insulin is considered as an external factor. On the other hand, a diabetic person who is aggressive or violent as a result of being in the hyperglycemic state would have to go for the insanity defense as in such a case there is an absence of an external factor[8]. This can be evidenced from the case of R v Quick Paddison and R v Hennessy. R v Quick Paddison[9] is a leading case in the matter of sane-automatism. In this case, the appellant had attacked the patient while he was on his duty, as a result of which the patient was injured. Upon being charged with assault, the appellant raised the defense of automatism stating that he was hypoglycemic and had taken insulin without eating anything. The trial judge held that this was a case of insanity and not automatism. The defendant changed his plea and appealed. The conviction was quashed as the appeal was allowed. The hypoglycemia was not caused by the diabetes and was an external factor based[10]. Another case in this regard is the case of R v Hennessy[11], but in this case, the appeal was dismissed as the appellant had pleaded against conviction. The defense of insanity was held to be the proper defense. This was because in the view of the Court of Appeals, the state of hyperglycemia was caused due to the diabetic disease itself and not because of any external factor of injecting the insulin, as was found in the R v Quick Paddison case[12]. Sane Automatism When the defense of sane automatism is pleaded in a successful manner, it acts as a complete defense and absolves the defendant from any and all criminal liability. It is different from the insane automatism defense as in that defense, the power to detain an individual in a mental hospital is absent and an order cannot be made against the defendant[13]. The sane automatism defense exists when any individual commits a crime in such situation where their actions are said to be involuntary. So, even when the defendant is not conscious due to some external factor, this defense can be used. The key difference between these is that in insane automatism, the defect of reason has to be an internal factor and for sane automatism, the defense, the action has to result due to an external factor. In R v Bingham[14], this defense was held due to external factors presence. In order to apply the defense of sane automatism successfully, the requirements of this have to be fulfilled. So, there must be an existence of the involuntary action which arises due to some external source. Such an action has to be completely involuntary and the automatisms cannot be self-induced[15]. The involuntary action should not be raised due to an inside source, as in such a case, the finding would be of insane automatism. In R v Kemp[16], the hardening of the arteries was taken to be the disease of mind, which is an internal factor and so, the defense of sane automatism was not applied. In Bratty v A-G for NI[17], the defense of sane automatism was quashed as psychomotor epilepsy was an internal condition, which raised the defense of insanity and not sane automatism. Similarly in the case of R v Burgess[18], the appeal for automatism defense was dismissed. This was because the sleepwalking was caused due to a disorder or an abnormality of the brain, even though transitory in nature and hence, was an internal factor. For the defense of sane automatism to be successful, there has to be a complete loss of control. So, if the defendant is able to retain control over some part of their actions, the defense would fail as the defendant, in such a case, would not be acting as automation. In Broome v Perkins[19], the appellant was a diabetic patient and had driven in an erratic manner when he was suffering from hypoglycemia. The defense he used of sane automatism fell short as there was evidence to show that he had exercised conscious control over his car by steering away from the other vehicles in order to avoid a crash and applied the brakes. This conscious control made the defense of sane automatism fall flat and he was convicted for driving without proper care. Insane Automatism The defense of insane automatism is a general defense and is available for every sort of crime. In case of this defense, the special verdict is given of not guilty by reason of insanity. This is a unique defense and has to be raised by the judge and the prosecution, additionally to the quoted defense. This defense is generally a manner of avoiding the finding of insanity and it is commonly seen that the plea is alter on changed by the defendant to guilty, so as to steer clear from a finding of insanity. The use, as well as, importance of this defense has been declined since the death penalty has been abolished and since the defense of diminished responsibility in cases of murder has been introduced[20]. The insanity is relevant at three stages, i.e., before the trial, unfitness to plead and at the time of the offence. In case an individual is in custody and clearly is insane, then the Home Secretary in such cases has the power of detaining such an individual, on immediate basis to a mental hospital. Though, in such cases, there is a requirement of confirmation regarding the state of mind of the offender from two doctors[21]. The unfitness to plead can be raised by the judge, the prosecution or the defense. The jury decides if the defendant is unfit or fit for pleading. The jury has the authority of making the finding regarding the unfitness to plead in case, based on the balance of probabilities, one of the six is beyond the capability of the appellant: Understanding the charges, Exercising the right of challenging the jurors, Taking a decision on whether or not to plead guilty, Providing necessary evidence to prove own defense, Instructing the counsel and the solicitors, Following the proceedings course[22]. In R v Pritchard[23], the defendant was found as unfit to plead as in their opinion, he had no mode of communicating the details of the trial to the prisoner, which he could reasonably understand and which could enable him in making a proper defense to the charges made. To answer the question of presence of insanity at the time the offence was committed, the M'Naghten rules have to be applied. These rules were given in the case of M'Naghten[24] by the House of Lords. As per these rules, it has to be shown that the defendant, at the time of the offence, was suffering from, a defect of reason, which is caused by a disease of mind, and it should be such that the defendant had no knowledge of his actions or that the act was wrong. In R v Clarke[25], it was held that the absent mindedness or forgetfulness is not sufficient for this defense. In R v Sullivan[26], the appellant had kicked a person and at the time of attack, the appellant was suffering from epilepsy. The trial judge held that the appropriate defense in this case was not automatism but insanity and this verdict was upheld by the House of Lords. In R v Windle[27], the defendant stated upon being arrested for killing his wife that as per him, he would be possibly hanged for this. This statement denoted that the defendant knew that what he was doing was considered as unlawful and so, the defense of insanity was quashed. Problems Associated with Sane and Insane Automatism Both the sane and insane automatism, have inherent problems in both theory, as well as, in practice. The cases which involve the defendants suffering from the disease of diabetes provide a leading example which is covered under these defenses. The first and foremost problem is making a distinction between sane and insane automatism, as it fails to make any sense. The dependence is on a crude differentiation, which is based on whether or not the cause of loss of control was due to internal factors or the external factors of the accused[28]. In other words, the key point to establish if there is a case of sane or insane automatism relates to the factor being internal or external, as has been thoroughly explained. However, to make this differentiation is a problem in itself. Firstly, it is quite absurd to label a diabetic person as an insane individual. Moreover, there are cases where the defendants have acted with the exact same state of mind, and yet, have obtained entirely different verdicts[29]. The present day rules which govern the insanity defense date back to 1843 and have been criticized for a varied range of reasons. It remains unclear if this defense is available in all the cases or not. As the law lags on the psychiatric understanding, in practice, the defense remains under-used and the correct legal test is not applied by the medical professionals. The label of being insane is an outdated one for describing the ones suffering with a mental illness. And is especially wrong in the matter where individuals have learning difficulties or disabilities, or the ones suffering from epilepsy. Moreover, the case laws on sane and insane automatism are incoherent and produce such results which counter the common-sense[30]. Possible Reforms The problems associated with sand and insane automatism have been thoroughly discussed by the Law Commission of UK and through their discussion paper on Criminal Liability: Insanity and Automatism, they have suggested various reforms to deal with the identified problems. They have suggested that a new defense should be put forward regarding the individual not being criminally responsible for the reasons of a recognized medical condition. This would help in abolishing the insanity defense. And since the crime would be done due to a recognized medical condition, the individual would not be criminally held liable for their actions[31]. There is also a need for a new special verdict. The present special verdict attains the verdict of not being guilty by reason of insanity, and to this, are attached particular disposal powers. The new proposed defense would give a new special verdict, which is not being criminally responsible by reasons of a recognized medical condition and it would have special disposal powers[32]. Need for implementation of the new reforms The proposal put forward by the Law Commission should be brought into force. The foremost and the most crucial reason for this is that a sense of human dignity would be maintained as instead of giving the verdict as an insane person, the individual would be said to be suffering from a recognized disease. This would ensure that the proper respect is given to an individual, who is suffering from a disease and which led to the undertaking of the crime. The proposed changes would transform the defense of automation. By introducing the new defense, the relationship of it with the defense of automatism would be different. Under the current law, some of the condition would lead to the defense of automatism only when they would be recognized medical conditions and so, would lead to the defense under the provisional proposals. Also, the scope of a plea made under automatism would be narrower in comparison to the provisions under the current law. Position of other jurisdictions Depending upon the jurisdiction, the automatism can be a defense which is distinctive from insanity or a species of it[33]. Even though the law of the other jurisdictions like of Canada, Australia and UK are not binding in the courts of Malaysia, as they are restricted by the wordings of the Penal Code, though the developments in this regard, of the other jurisdictions do shed light over these concepts[34]. Moreover, these are of assistance in both the legislatures, as well as, the courts while incorporating the concepts into the code. A key example of this can be seen in the cases quoted earlier, which are mostly English cases. Even though the positions are different based on the jurisdictions, but the view regarding diabetes remains largely the same due to the application of the M'Naghten rule in nearly all the jurisdictions. Moreover, the case laws used above, are established case laws and are often used in taking a decision, especially in the case of diabetes. So, the English case laws form the base for making a decision in this matter, irrespective of the jurisdiction. And it is not just the use of English case laws, but the established case laws which are used to take a decision in such matters. So, even though the codes may be varied based on the jurisdictions, but the crux of the matter in this issue remains the same, throughout. Bibliography Primary Sources Bratty v A-G for NI [1963] AC 386 Broome v Perkins [1987] Crim LR 271 Kay v Butterworth (1945) 61 TLR 452 McClain v. State, (Ind. 1997) 678 N.E.2d 104 M'Naghten [1843] UKHL J16 R v Bingham [1991] Crim LR 43 R v Burgess [1991] 2 WLR 1206 R v Clarke [1972] 1 All ER 219 R v Hennessy [1989] 1 WLR 287 R v Kemp (1957) 1 QB 399 R v Pritchard (1836) 7 CP 303 R v Quick Paddison [1973] QB 910 R v Sullivan [1984] AC 156 R v Windle [1952] 2QB 826 Secondary SourcesBooks Herring J, Criminal Law: Text, Cases, and Materials (7th edn, Oxford University Press 2014) Martin J and Storey T, Unlocking Criminal Law (3rd edn, Routledge 2013) Routledge Revision Lawcards, Criminal Law (6th edn, Routledge-Cavendish, 2008) Smith JC and others, Smith and Hogan's Criminal Law (14th edn, Oxford University Press 2015) Online Journals Mackay RD, An anatomy of automatism [2015] 55 Med Sci Law https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26378105 accessed 07 March 2017 Websites and blogs E-Law Resources, Defence of insanity (2017) https://e-lawresources.co.uk/ Insanity.php accessed 07 March 2017 E-Law Resources, Defence of Non-Insane Automatism in Criminal Law (2017) https://e-lawresources.co.uk/Non-insane-automatism.php accessed 07 March 2017 E-Law Resources, R v Hennessy [1989] 1 WLR 287 Court of Appeal (2017) https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/R-v-Hennessy.php accessed 07 March 2017 E-Law Resources, R v Quick [1973] 3 WLR 26 Court of Appeal (2017) https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/R-v-Quick.php accessed 07 March 2017 Law Commission, Criminal Liability: Insanity and Automatism- A Discussion Paper (23 July 2013) https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/insanity_discussion.pdf accessed 07 March 2017 Law Commission, Criminal Liability: Insanity and Automatism- A Discussion Paper Summary for non-specialists (23 July 2013) https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/insanity_discussion_summary.pdf accessed 07 March 2017 Law Commission, Insanity and Automatism (2017) https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/project/insanity-and-automatism/ accessed 07 March 2017 Yeo S, Situating Automatism in the Penal Codes of Malaysia and Singapore (The Malaysian Bar, 22 August 2005) https://www.malaysianbar.org.my/criminal_law/situating_automatism_in_the_penal_codes_of_malaysia_and_singapore.html accessed 07 March 2017 Ronnie D Mackay, An anatomy of automatism [2015] 55 Med Sci Law https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26378105 accessed 07 March 2017 Law Commission, Insanity and Automatism (2017) https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/project/insanity-and-automatism/ accessed 07 March 2017 Law Commission, Criminal Liability: Insanity and Automatism- A Discussion Paper (23 July 2013) https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/insanity_discussion.pdf accessed 07 March 2017 Law Commission, Criminal Liability: Insanity and Automatism- A Discussion Paper Summary for non-specialists (23 July 2013) https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/insanity_discussion_summary.pdf accessed 07 March 2017 McClain v. State, (Ind. 1997) 678 N.E.2d 104 at 108 Stanley Yeo, Situating Automatism in the Penal Codes of Malaysia and Singapore (The Malaysian Bar, 22 August 2005) https://www.malaysianbar.org.my/criminal_law/situating_automatism_in_the_penal_codes_of_malaysia_and_singapore.html accessed 07 March 2017

Various Modes of Transportation

Table of Contents Surface (land) Transport Road transport Railway transportation mode Pipeline transportation mode Water transportation modes Air transport References By definition, the term ‘modes of transportation’ refers to the means by which people, goods and services achieve mobility. In logistics and geography, the wide diversity of transportation modes falls under one of the three major categories- land, water and air. In addition, each mode is adapted to serve certain requirements of mobility for freight and people. The result is a marked difference in the use and deployment of the various modes of transportation.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Various Modes of Transportation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the recent times, technology and costs have made authorities and institutions attempt to integrate various modes through linking them closely. The aim is to enhance production an d distribution of resources (Winston, 2005). Therefore, it is necessary to develop an understanding of how the different modes of transportation compare with each other in terms of costs, capital requirements, government actions and cash requirements. Surface (land) Transport Land transportation includes three systems- roads, railways and pipelines. The three systems are some of the most advanced and useful forms of transport because they provide connection between communities, societies and institutions (Washington, Karlaftis Mannering, 2011). In addition, they provide a cheap way of connection over short and long distances and a convenient way of providing mobility of passenger, energy and freight of varying weight, size and nature. Road transport According to Anderson and McCullough (2011), road cost allocation is the analysis model that shows the roadway costs to different road users within the context of the share of cost imposed on each group. With this model, it is possible to determine the cost of using roads in the United States. It provides analysts with an easy way of estimationg the cost of road transportation. This depends on the vehicles used and the level of government involved in imposing costs (Washington, Karlaftis Mannering, 2011). For instance, the 2010 estimates indicate that automobile users meet a federal cost of about $0.011 per mile and state costs of about $0.018 per mile (National Research Council, 2011). In addition, they must meet user payments of $0.036 per mile and external costs of $0.12 per mile (Anderson McCullough, 2011). Thus, the total cost of using an automobile is about $0.149 per mile in the US. Similarly, the total cost of using pickups and vans is $0.421 per mile while the cost of using other vehicles such as unit trucks, combination trucks and buses is $0.162, $0.256 and $0.144 respectively (Anderson McCullough, 2011). These estimates indicate that the cost of using vehicles depend on size- the heavier the vehicle , the higher the cost of using roads Apart from the facility costs, using roads in the United States as a mode of transport requires additional costs due to policing, planning, street lighting and court fees (National Research Council, 2011). Accordingly, some motor vehicle costs are set and imposed by municipal governments, including street-parking ($12.9-21.56 billion USD), fire protection (0.9-3.4USD) and policing (9.4-14.2 billion USD) (Margreta, Ford Dipo, 2011).Advertising Looking for report on transportation? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In addition, road usage requires extensive use of fuel, which is primarily in the form of petroleum products (gas) obtained from gas stations throughout the country. In this case, road users must bear the cost of fuelling their vehicles. For instance, automobiles and pickups use the least fuel per mile while heavy vehicles such as trucks and buses use more fuel. Construction and mai ntenance of roads in the US is one of the most important but expensive tasks used to enhance logistics in the country. Statistics provided by institutions such as FHWA indicate that roadway expenditures by all levels in the US are estimated at $217 billion (Margreta, Ford Dipo, 2011). This includes the cost of construction and maintenance of all roads. According to estimates, road construction costs, including grading and paving, ranges from $320,000 in good conditions to $2,800,000 per mile in difficult conditions (Margreta, Ford Dipo, 2011). In rural areas, it is estimated that the cost of constructing roads ranges from $2,400,000 to $4,400,000 (Hummels, 2007). In addition, it is worth noting that roads occupy extensive land. Therefore, land value must be determined when estimating the cost of road transport in the United States. Estimates indicate that the cost of land devoted to roads in the country exceeds $500 billion, with an annualized value of about $40 billion (National Research Council, 2011). Apart from these costs, road transportation mode has a number of regulations. For instance, each motorist must obtain a valid driving licence. Moreover, it is a legal requirement that children under the age of 16 years should not drive. This also applies to people under the influence of alcohol and other drugs as well as people with mental problems. Railway transportation mode Railway transportation is similar to road transport because can accommodate a wide range of passengers and freight. Nevertheless, railroads are efficient in transporting heavy freight along great distances at low costs. In addition, rail transportation mode is more efficient in fuel usage compared to road transportation modes. According to estimates, the cost of transporting freight such as oil or petroleum products in the US using railroad is about $10.3 billion between Bakken, ND, and Gulf Coast (Government Accountability Office, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom report s ample on Various Modes of Transportation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More When using roads to transport an equal amount of freight over the same distance, it would cost $3.21billion above the amount spent on railroad transport (Government Accountability Office, 2010). In addition, railroad transportation is time efficient because the causes of delay are fewer than those affecting road transport. The cost of building and running railway lines is cheaper than the cost of building roads. For instance, estimates indicate that the cost of building a single-track freight line with a low number of locomotives, running on flat ground and with simple signalling system is about $2 million per kilometre, which includes mechanical and electrical equipping costs (Government Accountability Office, 2010). High technology and high-speed railway lines cost the government about $200 million per kilometre (Anderson McCullough, 2011). This shows that th e cost of building high technology and speed railways is higher than the cost of building highways. However, the amount of freight and passenger that each can hold differs, with railway transport being the most efficient and less costly (Winston, 2005). It is also worth noting that companies, rather than individuals, operate railway transport. Therefore, government regulations are mostly directed towards these companies. For instance, the regulation on weight (rail truck units) and length of a single engine train affects individual companies involved. In addition, the security requirements for freight and passengers affect companies because they are supposed to provide such services to freight and passengers. This differs from regulations in road transport that affect both individuals and companies. Pipeline transportation mode Pipeline transport has become an efficient means of transporting liquid and gaseous substances in the recent past. This is due to its ability to transport he avy and risky commodities over long distances. In addition, it operates at low costs. In the US, the cost of transporting crude oil between Bakken and Gulf coast is about $9.3 billion for pipelines and $10.3 billion for roads (Hummels, 2007). Similarly, it is estimated that the cost of transporting crude oil from Alberta to Gulf Coast is about $13.7 for pipeline and $15.7 for rails (Margreta, Ford Dipo, 2011). Thus, it is important to note that the cost of using pipelines is less when compared to both rail and road transport.Advertising Looking for report on transportation? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In addition, the cost of building pipelines differs significantly with the cost of constructing railroads and roads. For instance, the cost of constructing a gas pipeline of 12-20 inches is about $961 per mile and $835 per mile for a 22-30 inch pipeline (Winston, 2005) For crude oil, the cost of constructing a 12-20 inch pipeline is about $516 per mile and $530 per mile for a similar pipeline designed for oil products. In total, it is estimated that the cost of building all types of pipelines for crude oil, gas and petroleum product is about $4,469, $6,163 and $4,726 per mile respectively (Hummels, 2007). This shows that the constructing pipeline is more efficient than constructing roads and rails to transport the same product. Water transportation modes Water transportation is the oldest mode of transport. It is divided into inland and external transport systems. In the United States, inland transport includes the transportation of freight and passengers between cities and towns al ong the American coastlines and in the great lakes. Domestic water transportation in the country accounts for 30 per cent of the total amount of freight and passengers transported with this mode. The cost of transporting freight and passengers using ships and other marine vessels is about $29.0 billion per year, which compares to $542 billion, $50.0 billion, $10 billion and $ 29 billion for road, rail, pipeline and air transportation costs respectively. It is also estimated that the price of fuel for marine vessels range between $60 and $160 per mile (Margreta, Ford Dipo, 2011). The cost of constructing facilities for ships and marine vessels is less than that of roads, rails and pipelines because vessels only runs on the water surface. They only need docking and control facilities. In most cases, water transport for freight and passengers involves companies and not individuals. However, some individuals own or operate domestic ships and other vessels for transport and leisure. As such, they are equally affected by government regulations and policies. For instance, in the US, there are regulations on the amount of freight and number of passengers (weight) that can be transported on a ship at a time. In addition, the age of a vessel and fuel usage are regulated. Licensing is one of the most significant methods of government control and policing in water transport. Security for passengers and freight must be guaranteed by the company offshore and at the docks. Unlike other forms of transportation, water transportation modes have the capacity to accommodate large and bulky freight over long distances. Capital considerations include the cost of the vessels and the cost of constructing docking facilities. For instance, the cost of a cruise ship known as Queen Mary, a typical ship, is about $800 million (Hummels, 2007). A typical container ship costs about $75 million. This is an indication that capital considerations must always revolve around the cost of the vess els and its maintenance because docking facilities are provided by the government at a cost. Air transport Air transport is the most recent and most efficient in terms of duration. The method requires extensive infrastructure, security and legal regulations. In addition, it requires expertise and large amounts of capital to operate. The economics of air transport compares with that of other types of transportation. For instance, air transport has contributed to globalization because aircrafts provide real-time connection between continents. In fact, aircrafts spend between 5 and 10 hours to travel from Europe to America. It is estimated that air transport contributes to the transportation of 1 million people per year, and the number is increasing. The cost of air transport is about $29.0 billion per year, which compares to $542 billion, $50.0 billion, $10 billion and $ 29 billion for road, rail, pipeline and water transportation costs respectively (Margreta, Ford Dipo, 2011). Air t ransport is the most risky and sophisticated mode of transportation. Unlike other modes of transportation, air transport is regulated to enhance security for the crew, passengers, freight and people on the ground. For instance, the issue of terrorism is a threat to modern air transport. As such, several regulations and restrictions have been developed. In addition, licensing of flight companies and their crew is an important aspect of air transport that affects operators. References Anderson, D., McCullough, G. (2011). The Full Cost of Transportation in the Twin Cities Region. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Centre for Transportation Studies. Government Accountability Office, (2010). Freight Railroads: Industry Health Has Improved, but Concerns about Competition Capacity Should Be Addressed, 2006. New York: U.S. Department of Transportation. Hummels, D. (2007). Transportation costs and international trade in the second era of globalization. The Journal of Economic Perspe ctives, 21(3), 131-154. Margreta, M., Ford, C., Dipo, M. A., (2011). U.S. Freight on the Move: Highlights from the 2007 Commodity Flow Survey Preliminary Data, 2010. New York, NY: Cengage National Research Council, (2011). Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles. Washington, DC: National Research Council. Washington, S. P., Karlaftis, M. G., Mannering, F. L. (2011). Statistical and econometric methods for transportation data analysis. New York: CRC press. Winston, C. (2005). Conceptual developments in the economics of transportation: an interpretive survey. Journal of Economic Literature, 23(1), 57-94. This report on Various Modes of Transportation was written and submitted by user Giselle Daniels to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.